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Thursday, 8 September 2016

If the Himalayas would have not been in its present position how would be the climatic conditions of the Indian sub continent?

2. If the Himalayas would have not been in its present
position how would be the climatic conditions of
the Indian sub continent?


A. 1. The Himalayas protect India from the cold-winds of central
Asia during winter.
2. The Himalayas are responsible for causing rainfall.3. Himalayas are the birth places of the great perennial rivers,Indus, Ganga and Brahmaputra.
4. No tropical monsoon climate in India.
5. They intercept the summer monsoons coming from the ocean.

6. Without Himalayas India would have been a desert.

The sun rises two hours earlier in Arunachal Pradesh as compared to Gujarat in the west. But the watches show the same time. How does this happen?

1. The sun rises two hours earlier in Arunachal Pradesh as compared to Gujarat in the west. But the watches show the same time. How does this happen?



A. 1. Arunachal Pradesh is in the eastern most part of India.
2. Gujarat is in the Western most part of India.
3. The East West maximum distance of India is 3,000 km.
4. The time difference between Arunachal Pradesh & Gujarat is 2 hours.
5. To remove the time differences, the time is decided on a central meridian.
6. That is called Standard Meridian.
7. The time at 82½°east longitude is taken as Indian Standard Time.

8. Because of this reason, all the watches show the same time.

INDIA -RELIEF FEATURES-----BITS & IMPORTANT POINTS

INDIA -RELIEF FEATURES-------------------BITS & IMPORTANT POINTS


1. For India the central longitude 82.3°E is taken as Standard Meridian.
2. 82.3°E longitude passes near Allahabad andKakinada.
3. IST means Indian Standard Time.
4. GMT means Greenwich Mean Time.
5. The time difference between GMT and IST is 5 ½hours.
6. India has an extension of 2,933kms from East to West.
7. India has an extension of 3,214kms from North to south.
8. The country's mainland lies between 8°4'and 37°6'north latitudes.
9. India has the land frontier of 15,200kms and a coastal line of 7,516kms.

10. India lies entirely in theNorthern Hemisphere.
11. Indian sub-continent includes India, Pakistan, Bangladesh, Nepal, Bhutan, Sri Lanka and Maldives.
12. World land forms originated from two giant lands namely Angara land
(Laurasia) and Gondwana land.
13. The Indian peninsula was part of Gondwanaland.
14. Over 200million years ago Gondwana land split into pieces.
15. Indian plate moved towards north-west and collided the much larger
Eurasian Plate(Angara land).
16. The Himalayan ranges west to east distance is 2400kms.
17. The Himalayan ranges width is 200 to 500 kms.
18. The Himalayas comprise three parallel ranges. 1. Himadri 2. Himachal/
Lesser Himalayas 3. Shivaliks.
19. The northern most range is known as Greater Himalayas or Himadri.
20. Greater Himalayas is continuous with the highest peaks.
21. Greater Himalayas average height 6100mts.
22. Lesser Himalayas average height 3,700 to 4,500 mts.
23. Pir panjal and Mahabharata ranges are in the part of Lesser Himalayas.
24. Valley of Kashmir, the Kangra and Kulu are in Lesser Himalayas.
25. Simla, Mussorie, Nainital, Raniket Hill stations are in Lesser Himalayas.
26. Lesser Himalayas covered by evergreen forest.

27. Shivaliks width is 10-50kms.
28. Shivaliks average height is 900 -1100 mts.
29. Shivaliks are called as Jammu hills in Jammu region.
30. Shivaliks are called as Mishmi hills in Arunachal Pradesh.
31. Shivaliks are called as Cacharhillsin Assam.
32. Shivaliks consist of thick gravel and alluvium.
33. The valleys lying between the Himachal and Shivalik are called Duns.
34. The prominent Duns are Dehradun, Kotli Dun and Patli Dun.
35. The eastern most boundary of the Himalayas is the Brahmaputravalley.
36. Purvanchalare known as Patkai, Naga, Manipuri, Khasi and Mizo hills.
37. The Himalayas are reason for summer rains and monsoon climate.
38. River Indus tributaries :1. Jhelum2. Chenab 3. Ravi 4. Beas 5. Sutlej.
39. The Himalayan Rivers have a perennial flow.
40. The Himalayan Rivers are fed by theglaciers.
41. ‘Doab’ means two rivers.
42. Ganga plain extends from the rivers Ghaggarto Teesta.
43. Gravel and pebble sediments feature is known as ‘Bhabar’.
44. Swampy and marshy region called Terai.
45. India is surrounded by the sea on threesides.
46. The Indian plateau is mainly composed of the old crystalline,
hard igneous and metamorphicrock.

47. The Indian plateau is slightly tilted towards east.
48. The peninsular plateau consists of two divisions namely, the Malwa plateau (central high lands) and the DeccanPlateau.
49. The famous hill station Udagamandalam, popularly known as Ooty.
50. The Mahadev range forms the Deccan plateau’s eastern edge.
51. Western Ghats, Eastern Ghats and Nilgiris form western, eastern and southern boundaries to the Deccan plateau.
52. Anaimudi2695 mts (Annamalaihills) is the highest peak in south India.
53. Western Ghats include the Anaimalai, Palani(Tamilnadu) and Cardamom (Kerala) hills.
54. In comparison to the Gangetic plains the plateau region is dry.
55. The highest peak in Eastern Ghats is found at Chinthapalli (1680 mts).
56. Nallamalas, Velikondas, Palakondasand Seshachalaare the tracts of Eastern Ghats.

57. The Eastern Ghats extends from Mahanadi valley to Nilgiris.
58. The southernmost tip of the plateau is Kanyakumari.
59. Chhotanagpurplateau is rich in mineral resources.
60. The Deccan plateau is a triangular landmass.
61. Satpurarange forms the Deccan plateau’s north edge.
62. The Western Ghats lie parallel to the west coast.
63. The Western Ghats are higher than the Eastern Ghats.
64. Western Ghats extend for 1600kms.
65. Western Ghats height 2000mts.
66. Near Gudalurthe Nilgiris joins the Western Ghats.
67. Ooty is located in Nilgiris.
68. DoddaBetta(2637 mts) is the highest peak in Nilgiris.

69. The average height of the Eastern Ghats 900 mts.
70. The Deccan plateau is formed with black soils due to volcanic activity.
71. The Thar Desert is located on the leeward side of Aravalies.
72. The Thar Desert receives rainfall 100 to 150 mm per year.
73. The Thar Desert has an aridclimate with very low vegetation cover.
74. ‘Luni’ is the only river in the Thar Desert.
75. Indira Gandhi canal is the longest canal in the country (650kms).
76. The western coast starts at Rann of Kutch and ends at Kanyakumari.
77. The western coast is narrower than the east coast.
78. Maharashtra and Goa coast is called as KonkanCoast.
79. Karnataka coast is called as Canaracoast.
80. Kerala coast is called as Malabarcoast.
81. The western coast starts from Mahanadito Cauvery.
82. Odisha coast is called as Utkalcoast.
83. Andhra Pradesh coast is called as Sircarcoast.

84. Tamil Nadu coast is called as Coramandal coast.
85. Lake Chilka is in Odisha.
86. Lake Kolleruand Pulicat are in Andhra Pradesh.
87. Andaman and Nicobar Islands stretched in Bay of Bengal.
88. Lakshadweep Islands are in the Arabian Sea.
89. In Andaman and Nicobar, Narkondam and Barren are volcanic origin.
90. The southernmost tip of India is found in Nicobar called as Indira point.
91. Indira point was submerged during the 2004Tsunami.
92. LakshadweepIslands are of coral origin.
93. Lakshadweep Islands total geographic area is 32sq.kms.

94. Lakshadweep Island is famous for great variety of flora and fauna.

Wednesday, 7 September 2016

Lymphatic system

 Lymphatic system

Lymphatic circulation along with blood circulation plays a key role in maintaining the fluidity in all regions of the body. It helps to maintain fluid balance in tissues and it absorbs fat from the digestive tract. It also functions as body’s defence system against micro organisms and other harmful substances. This system includes lymph, lymphocytes, lymphatic vessels, lymph nodules, lymph nodes, tonsils, the spleen and the thymus gland.Lymphoid cells and tissues - Lymphatic organs contain lymphatic tissues. These tissues primarily consist of lymphocytes. They also contain macrophages, dendritic cells and reticular cells. Lymphocytes are a type of white blood cells. They originate from red bone marrow and are carried by blood to lymphatic organs and other tissues. There are several classes of lymphocytes. The B-lymphocytes or B cells synthesize antibodies for recognizing and neutralising alien macromolecules. T- lymphocytes can recognize and selectively kill cells infected with viruses. B and T lymphocytes are produced from stem cells present in the bone marrow. The T lymphocytes get matured only after entering into Thymus, a lymphoid organ through circulation. Maturation and differentiation of B cells will occur in the bone marrow itself. Thus the thymus and bone marrow are described as central or primary lymphoid organs.
Thymus - It is a roughly triangular, bilobed gland. It is located in the mediastinum (ie., between the lungs). It lies between the sternum and the pericardium. Its size varies with age. It is largest in the early part of life (upto 15 years). At birth it weighs 10 - 15 g. After puberty it greatly decreases in size.Each thymus lobe is surrounded by a thin capsule made of the connective tissue. It has 2 layers. The inner layer is the medulla, the outer layer is cortex. The lymphocytes are found only in cortex layer.Lymph nodes - These are small round structures. Their size ranges from 1- 25 mm. They are distributed throughout the course of the lymphatic vessels. These nodes are found all over the body. However they are concentrated asaggregations in 3 regions of the body. These are the inguinal nodes in the groin, the axillary nodes in the axillary region and the cervical nodes of the neck.The lymph enters the lymph nodes through afferent lymphatic vessels and exits through efferent vessels. The nodes contain open spaces called sinuses. The sinuses are lined with phagocytic cells.Spleen - It is roughly the size of a clenched fist. It is located on the left side of the abdominal cavity. It has a fibrous capsule. The spleen contains two types of lymphatic tissues, namely the red pulp and the white pulp.Tonsils - These are the largest lymph nodules. They provide protection against bacteria and other harmful materials. In adults the tonsils decrease in size and may disappear. There are 3 groups of tonsils in the pharyngeal walls. Of the three, the palatine tonsils are usually refered to as “the tonsils”. These are larger lymphoid masses on each side of the junction between the oral cavity and the pharynx. The pharyngeal tonsil or adenoid are found near the junction between the nasal cavity and the pharynx. The lingual tonsil is a loosely associated collection of lymph nodules on the posterior surface of the tongue.


The lymphatic circulation - The lymph fluid from the tissues is drained by lymphatic capillaries. These capillaries though present in many tissues are absent in epidermis, hairs, nails, cornea, cartilages, CNS and bonemarrow. The lymphatic capillaries join into larger vessels. The larger vessels pass to local or remote lymph nodes. These vessels and associated lymph nodes are arranged in regional groups. Each group has its region of drainage. Nodes within a group are interconnected. Such regional groups with nodes and vessels are organised in (1) Head and neck (2) Upper limbs (3) Lower limbs (4) Abdomen and pelvis (5) thorax.

The regional vessels return to the venous blood circulation via the right and left lympho venous portals. Nearly eight lymphatic trunks converge at the site of the vertebral column and open into the venous portals nearer to the neck

The Sensory Organs.

 The Sensory Organs.

Living organism respond to several stimuli such as light, heat, sound, chemicals, pressure, touch, stretch and orientation. These stimuli are felt by specific receptors. The receptors convert the stimuli into impulses in the nervous systems.


The touch receptors in the skin are the simplest receptors. Such receptors are single nerve cells responding directly to the stimulus. Other receptors are complex sense organs. On these organs the stimulus is channelled into a receptive region of the organ. Among the several organs, the most important are the eyes and ears.

The eye
The eye is formed of 3 coats or tunics.
                          Coats or tunic                       Regions                                                   1. Outer or fibrous - sclera & cornea                                                  2. middle or vascular - choroid, ciliary body           3. inner or nervous - retina 

The sclera is the white outer layer of the eye. It covers posterior fivesixths of the eye. This firm layer provides shape and protects the internal structures. A small region of the sclera can be seen as the “white of the eye”. In the front, the outer layer forms a transparent region called the cornea. It permits entry of light. The cornea is made up of a connective tissue having collagen, elastic fibres and proteoglycans.

The middle tunic of the eyeball is the vascular tunic. It contains most of the blood vessels. The vascular tunic contains melanin containing pigment cells. It appears black in colour. A major part of the vascular tunic is found in association with the sclera and called the choroid. Anteriorly this layer forms the ciliary body and iris.


The ciliary body consists of smooth muscles called the ciliary muscles. Contraction of the ciliary muscles can change the shape of the lens.




The iris is the coloured part of the eye. It may be black, brown or blue. It is a contractile structure surrounding an opening called the pupil. Light enters the eye through the pupil. The iris regulates such entry by controlling the size of the pupil.

The inner most tunic of the eye is the retina. It consists of an outer pigmented retina and an inner sensory retina. The sensory retina is light sensitive. It contains nearly 120 million photoreceptor cells called rods and another 7 million cones.


Compartments of the eye : The eye has 2 major compartments. There is a smaller compartment anterior to the lens. Behind the lens there is a larger compartment.


The anterior compartment is divided into two chambers. There is an anterior chamber found between the cornea and iris. A smaller posterior chamber lies between the iris and lens. These two chambers are filled with a substance called the aqueous humor. It helps to maintain intraocular pressure.


The posterior compartment of the eye is much larger and it contains a transparent jellylike substance called vitreous humor. The eye lens is an unique biological structure. It is transparent and biconvex. It is made up of long columnar epithelial cells called lens fibres. These fibres have an accumulation of proteins called crystallines. The lens is placed between the two eye compartments by suspensory ligaments.


The functioning of the eye is aided by accessory structures. They include the eyebrows, eyelids, conjunctiva and lacrimal apparatus. The eyebrows prevent the sweat during perspiration from running down into the eye. They help to shade the eyes from direct sunlight.


The eyelids and associated lashes protect the eyes from foreign objects. The medial region where the eyelids join has a small reddish-pink mound called the caruncle. It contains modified sebaceous and sweat glands. There are two or three rows of hairs attached to the free edges of eyelids. Modified sweat glands called the ciliary glands open into the follicles of the eyelashes. It keeps them lubricated. The inner margin of the eyelids contain Melbomian glands. These glands produce sebum for lubricating the eyelids.


The inner surface of the eyelids and the anterior surfae of the eye are covered by a thin, transparent mucous membrane called the conjunctiva. The lacrymal glands or tear glands are situated in the superolateral corner of the eye orbit. They produce tear at the rate of about 1 ml / day. Ithelps to moisten the eye surface and wash away foreign substances. At the corners of the eye there are small openings called the puncta. Each punctum inturn opens into a lacrymal canaliculus. The lacrimal canaliculi open into a lacrimal sac. This sac enters into a nasolacrimal duct which opens into the inferior nasal concha. These ducts help to drain the excess tear. The entire organization related to ‘tear’ is called the lacrymal apparatus.


Ears (The organs of hearing)

The ears are the organs of hearing and balance. They have three parts, namely external, middle and inner ears.


External ear - The fleshy part outside the head is called the pinna. It is made up of elastic cartilage and skin. It is followed by the external auditory meatus. This passage is lined with hairs and ceruminous glands. These glands produce cerumen or earwax. The hair and wax prevent foreign objects from reaching the ear drum. The ear drum or tympanic membrane is a oval, three layered structure. It separates outer and middle ears.



Middle ear - It is an air filled cavity. It contains three auditory ossicles called the malleus, incus and stapes. The handle of malleus is in contact with the inner surface of the ear drum. The head of the malleus is attached to the incus. While the stapes on one side is attached to the incus, its other side fits into the oval window. The oval window leads to the inner ear

Inner ear - This region has tunnels and chambers inside the temporal bonecalled the bony labyrinth. The bony labyrinth contains three regions called the cochlea, vestibule and semicircular canals. The oval window found in between the middle and inner ears communicates with the vestibule of the inner ear. The organs of the inner ear perceive the sound.

Urinary system

Urinary system

It is customary to link the organs of urinary excretion and reproduction as urino-genital system. The suitability of this concept is questionable.

The urinary and reproductive organs differ in their embryological origin and development. In postnatal human beings, the association between the components of the urinary and the reproductive systems is very much limited. Hence the urinary and reproductive systems are considered separately.

The urinary organs comprise, two kidneys (renes), ureters, the urinary bladder (vesica urinaria) and the urethra.


The kidneys.

The kidneys are bean shaped organs. In fresh state the kidneys are reddish brown in colour. They lie on the posterior abdominal wall. In the abdomen, the right kidney is slightly lower than the left. It is because of the presence of liver superior to it. The kidneys are surrounded by adipose tissue. Each kidney is about 11 cm in length, 6cm in breadth and 3cm in anteroposterior dimensions. In adult males the average weight of kidney is about 150g (in adult female 135g).


The inner margin of each kidney has a small depression called the hilum. The renal artery and nerves enter and the renal vein and the ureter exit at this region. The hilum opens into a cavity called the renal sinus.

Each kidney is enclosed by a fibrous connective tissue layer, called the renal capsule. Internally the kidney is divided into an outer cortex and an inner medulla. The medulla consists of several cone-shaped renal pyramids. Extensions of the pyramids called the medullary rays, project from the pyramids into the cortex. Extension of the cortex called renal columns, project between the pyramids. The tips of the pyramids are called the renal papillae. They are pointed toward the renal sinus. The renal papillae are surrounded by funnel shaped structures called the minor calyces. The minor calyces of several pyramids join together to form larger funnels called major calyces. There are 8-20 minor calyces and 2 or 3 major calyces per kidney. The major calyces converge to form an enlarged channel called the renal pelvis. The renal pelvis then narrows to form the ureter. The ureter leaves the kidney and gets connected to the urinary bladder.

Nephron

The basic functional unit of each kidney is the nephron. There are approximately 1.3 million nephrons in each kidney. Atleast 450,000 of them must remain functional to ensure survival. Each nephron consists of an enlarged terminal end called the renal corpuscle, a proximal tubule, a loop of Henle and a distal tubule. The distal tubule opens into a collecting duct. The renal corpuscle, proximal tubule and distal tubules are in the renal cortex. The collecting tubules and parts of the loops of Henle enter the renal medulla.



Most nephrons measure 50-55 mm in length. 15% of the nephrons are larger and they remain near the medulla. These are called the juxtamedullary nephrons. They have larger loops of Henle.

The renal corpuscle of the nephron consists of a Bowman’s capsule and a bunch of capillaries called the glomerulus. In the Bowman’s capsule the outer and inner layers are called parietal and visceral layers respectively. The outer parietal layer is composed of simple squamous epithelium. The inner visceral layer surrounds the glomerulus. It consists of specialized cells called podocytes. The walls of the glomerular capillaries are lined with endothelial cells. There is a basement membrane between the endothelial cells of the glomerular capillaries and the podocytes of Bowman’s capsule. The capillary endothelium, the basement membrane and the podocytes of Bowman’s capsule make up the filtration membrane.

The glomerulus is supplied with blood by an afferent arteriole. It is drained by an efferent arteriole. The cavity of Bowman’s capsule opens into the proximal tubule. The proximal tubule is also called the proximal convoluted tubule. It is approximately 14mm long and 60 µm in diameter.

Posteriorly the proximal tubule continues as the loop of Henle. Each loop has a descending limb and an ascending limb. The first part of the descending limb is similar in structure to the proximal tubule. The loops of Henle that extend into the medulla become very thin near the end of the loop. The first part of the ascending limb is also very thin and it consists of simple squamous epithelium, but it soon becoms thick. The distal tubules, also called the distal convoluted tubules are not as long as the proximal tubules.

Ureters and Urinary bladder

The ureters extend inferiorly from the renal pelvis. They arise medially at the renal hilum to reach the urinary bladder. The bladder is meant for temporarily storing the urine. The urinary bladder is a hollow muscular bag. It lies in the pelvic cavity. The size of the bladder depends on the presence or absence of urine. The bladder capacity varies from 120-320ml. Filling upto 500 ml is tolerated. Micturition will occur at 280ml. The ureters enter the bladder inferiorly on its posterolateral surface. The urethra exits the bladder inferiorly and anteriorly. At the junction of the urethra with the urinary bladdersmooth muscles of the bladder form the internal urinary sphincter. Around the urethra there is another external urinary sphincter. The sphincters control the flow of urine through the urethra. In the male the urethra extends to the end of the penis where it opens to the outside. In male the urethra is 18-20cm long. In the female the urethra is shorter. It is about 4 cm long and 6 mm in diameter.




APJ Abdul Kalam--about

APJ Abdul Kalam--about


Wings of Fire: An Autobiography of APJ Abdul Kalam, former President of India. It was written by Dr. Kalam and Arun Tiwari. Kalam examines his early life, effort, hardship, fortitude, luck and chance that eventually led him to lead Indian space research, nuclear, and missile programs. Kalam started his career, after graduating from Aerospace engineering at MIT, India, at HindustanAeronautics Limited and was assigned to build a hovercraft prototype. Later he moved to ISRO and helped establish the Vikram Sarabhai Space Centre and pioneered the first space launch-vehicle program. During the 1990s and early 2000, Kalam moved to the DRDO to lead the Indian nuclear weapons program, with particular successes in thermonuclear weapons development culminating in the operation Smiling Buddha and an ICBM Agni . Kalam died on 27 July 2015, during a speech at Indian Institute of Management in Shillong, Meghalaya.TranslationsThe autobiography first published in English, has so far been translated and published in 13 languages including Hindi, English, Tamil, Malayalam, Oriya, Marathi, and Braille. Outside of the major Indian languages, Wings of Fire was translated into Chinese (titled Huo Yi, by Ji Peng), and translated into French.
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